Cocoa and Chocolate in Human Health and Disease
Publication: Antioxidants & Redox Signaling
Volume 15, Issue Number 10
Abstract
Cocoa contains more phenolic antioxidants than most foods. Flavonoids, including catechin, epicatechin, and procyanidins predominate in antioxidant activity. The tricyclic structure of the flavonoids determines antioxidant effects that scavenge reactive oxygen species, chelate Fe2+ and Cu+, inhibit enzymes, and upregulate antioxidant defenses. The epicatechin content of cocoa is primarily responsible for its favorable impact on vascular endothelium via its effect on both acute and chronic upregulation of nitric oxide production. Other cardiovascular effects are mediated through anti-inflammatory effects of cocoa polyphenols, and modulated through the activity of NF-κB. Antioxidant effects of cocoa may directly influence insulin resistance and, in turn, reduce risk for diabetes. Further, cocoa consumption may stimulate changes in redox-sensitive signaling pathways involved in gene expression and the immune response. Cocoa can protect nerves from injury and inflammation, protect the skin from oxidative damage from UV radiation in topical preparations, and have beneficial effects on satiety, cognitive function, and mood. As cocoa is predominantly consumed as energy-dense chocolate, potential detrimental effects of overconsumption exist, including increased risk of weight gain. Overall, research to date suggests that the benefits of moderate cocoa or dark chocolate consumption likely outweigh the risks. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 15, 2779–2811.
Abstract
I. Introduction
A. History
B. Economic data
C. Components of cocoa
1. Lipids
2. Fiber
3. Minerals
4. Polyphenols and antioxidant activity
a. Vascular effects mediated through NO
II. Epidemiology: Chocolate and Health Outcomes
III. Effects on Cardiovascular Disease
A. Pathogenesis
B. Effects on endothelial function
1. Cocoa beverage consumption in healthy subjects
2. Cocoa beverage consumption in subjects at risk for cardiovascular disease
3. Solid dark chocolate consumption in healthy subjects
4. Dark chocolate and coronary circulation
5. Cocoa and chocolate consumption in CAD patients
C. Effects on platelets
D. Effects on lipids
E. Effects on BP
F. Cardiovascular effects: conclusion
IV. Effects on Insulin Resistance
V. Effects on Immune Function and Carcinogenesis
VI. Effects on the Central Nervous System
VII. Effects on Skin
VIII. Effects on Obesity
IX. Psychoactive Effects
A. Chocolate craving
B. Mood and cognitive function
X. Bioavailability of Cocoa Polyphenols
A. Metabolism of cocoa polyphenols
B. Effects of food processing on flavonoids
XI. Detrimental Health Effects
XII. Conclusions and Implications
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Published In
Antioxidants & Redox Signaling
Volume 15 • Issue Number 10 • November 15, 2011
Pages: 2779 - 2811
PubMed: 21470061
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Copyright 2011, Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
History
Published in print: November 15, 2011
Published online: 11 October 2011
Published ahead of print: 13 June 2011
Published ahead of production: 7 April 2011
Accepted: 6 April 2011
Revision received: 5 April 2011
Received: 6 October 2010
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